Kohlberg’s Differential Socialisation and Lacan’s Mirror Stage in Nawal El Saadawi’s Circling Song
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11104048
Author(s): Dr Manoj Kanth
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11104048
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Volume 15 | Issue 2 | April 2024
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Exploring Victorian Womanhood in The Naulahka
Mohammed Azhar Hussain
Research Scholar,
Department of English,
Vijayanagara Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Ballari, Karnataka.
&
Dr. Santhosha G. K
Assistant Professor,
Department of English,
Vijayanagara Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Ballari, Karnataka.
Article History: Submitted-11/03/2024, Revised-10/04/2024, Accepted-18/04/2024, Published-30/04/2024.
Abstract:
This paper delves into the multifaceted portrayal of Victorian womanhood within
Rudyard Kipling and Wolcott Balestier’s collaborative work, The Naulahka. Through textual
analysis and historical context, this study investigates the depiction of women characters
against the backdrop of late 19th-century society. Exploring themes of agency, societal
constraints, and individuality, the research uncovers nuances in the representation of female
characters, shedding light on their struggles, aspirations, and roles within a patriarchal
framework. Additionally, the analysis explores the intersectionality of race and gender,
considering how characters navigate identity within colonial contexts. By contextualizing the
text within its socio-cultural milieu, this study offers insights into Victorian ideologies
surrounding femininity and challenges conventional narratives of womanhood. The findings
contribute to a deeper understanding of Victorian literature and its reflection on societal
norms and values.
Keywords: Victorian womanhood, gender roles, agency, colonialism, societal
constraints.
Rudyard Kipling, a prominent British author and poet of the nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries, was indeed influenced by the historical context of Europe during the
nineteenth century. His creations frequently mirrored the prevailing attitudes, ideologies, and
happenings of his era. Two central aspects ripe for examination within this framework are
Kipling’s colonialist perspective and his attitudes towards women. Firstly, to look at the
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Colonialist Perspective during the nineteenth century, European colonial powers were
expanding their empires around the world, leading to a sense of superiority and the belief in
the “White Man’s Burden” (1899) – the idea that it was the responsibility of the Western
powers to civilize and uplift the so-called ‘inferior’ cultures they encountered. Kipling’s
writings often embodied these attitudes, reflecting the imperialist sentiment of his era. Ashis
Nandy has analysed Kipling’s imperialist perspective. He argued that Kipling’s works
depicted the British Empire as a civilizing force, justifying its expansion and dominance by
portraying the colonized peoples as primitive and needing guidance. His critique suggests
that Kipling’s writings perpetuated a colonialist mind-set that downplayed the agency and
richness of non-European cultures. (37-8)
Secondly, Kipling’s perspectives on women were also moulded by the gender norms
and societal expectations prevalent during his era. During the nineteenth century, women
were frequently relegated to roles within the domestic realm, and there were limited
opportunities for women to engage in public life or pursue careers. Kipling’s writings often
reflected and reinforced these gender roles. His portrayal of women in his works tends to be
traditional and limited, conforming to the societal norms of his era. Women were often
depicted as supportive and nurturing figures, playing secondary roles to men. In his poem
“The Female of the Species” (1911), Kipling portrays women as both tender and fierce, yet
he predominantly attributes their strength to their nurturing disposition rather than
acknowledging their individual agency. It is important to note that Kipling’s views on women
were not particularly progressive by modern standards, and his writings often reinforced
gender stereotypes prevalent during his time.
The Naulahka is set in colonial India during the late nineteenth century and provides a
multifaceted exploration of the complex interactions between different cultures, social
classes, and individuals within the colonial context. The story follows the adventures of a
young American, Nick Tarvine, who arrives in India to claim an inheritance known as the
‘naulahka,’ a valuable gem. He becomes involved in a series of personal and political
intrigues as he navigates the complexities of British colonial rule and the diverse native
cultures of India. The colonial perspective in The Naulahka reflects the prevailing attitudes of
the time when European powers held colonies across the globe. The novel presents a view of
the interactions between British colonizers and the indigenous population, showcasing power
dynamics, cultural clashes, and the challenges of governing and maintaining control over a
foreign land. This perspective often highlights the British viewpoint and attitudes, shedding
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light on the complexities, conflicts, and tensions that characterized colonial India. The
novel’s colonial perspective forms an essential backdrop against which characters like Kate
Sheriff can be thoroughly analyzed and understood. Analysing the novel through alternative
lenses, such as Victorian womanhood, allows a more nuanced understanding of the characters
and their interactions within this colonial setting.
Contextualizing Victorian Womanhood
The significance of Victorian womanhood in literature lies in its portrayal of female
characters navigating submissiveness, marriage, family and domesticities. Novels often
depict the tension between personal aspirations and societal limitations, fostering complex
character development and intricate plots. Moreover, literature functioned as a medium for
social critique, laying bare the constraints women encountered and stimulating discourse on
gender equality and women’s rights. Characters challenging Victorian womanhood’s confines
became symbols of resistance, contributing to changing real-world gender roles. Analysing
The Naulahka through the prism of Victorian womanhood engages with a literary tradition
reflecting historical perspectives and exploring women’s societal roles and challenges.
The Victorian era was characterized by a series of transformations in England’s social,
political, and moral landscapes throughout the nineteenth century. Literary works during the
Victorian period show a complex understanding of the intricate practices constituting
Victorian women’s lives and reveal the domestic ideology of the time. In Jane Eyre by
Charlotte Bronte, Lady Audley’s Secret by Mary Elizabeth Braddon, Sarah Stickney Ellis’
The Women of England: Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits, Coventry Patmore’s The
Angel in the House, and John Ruskin’s Of Queens’ Gardens and The Woman in White by
Wilkie Collins, the reader can see the tensions of the era regarding the Woman Question; in
particular, the focus within these novels is on the woman as working for or against the
conservative principles of the Victorian Era. The characters of Jane Eyre, Lucy Audley, and
Marian Halcombe work against the conventions of idealized femininity during the Victorian
era, as described in most of the works of the time.
During the Victorian era, the ideal woman’s life revolved around the domestic sphere
of her family and the home. Middle class women were brought up to “be pure and innocent,
tender and sexually undemanding, submissive and obedient” to fit the glorified “Angel in the
House”, the Madonna-image of the time (Lundén et al 147). Gender inequalities in politics,
economic life, education and social intercourse for women manifested themselves within the
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nineteenth century into a topic called the “Woman Question.” The Woman Question is a
multifaceted debate regarding gender ideologies and what is expected of the perfect Victorian
lady. Various incidents and circumstances were responsible for raising questions about the
role of women in society; their privileges, their deprivations, their opportunities, and their
problems (Anis 21).
Women were no longer willingly submitting to the principles of the time as they had
once done. In D. H. Lawrence’s “Do Women Change?” (1929), he censures women’s desire
to reinvent themselves and states:
Women used to see themselves as a softly flowing stream of attraction and desire and
beauty, soft quiet rivers of energy and peace. Then suddenly the idea changes. They
see themselves as isolated things, independent females, instruments for love,
instruments for work, instruments for politics . . . And as instruments they become
pointed and they wanted everything. (Walls 238)
This quotation from Lawrence’s work aptly relates to the change of ideologies in the
Victorian era amongst women. They were no longer willing to be perceived in that manner as
the Angel in the House; women sought liberation from the shackles of social conventions.
In choosing female protagonists, most writers who were determined to represent
women as strong figures that challenged the conventions of the time would represent them as
capable creatures rather than beautiful ones (Anis 24). So, the protagonist’s physical
appearance wasn’t always central to the narrative; instead, it was her ability to assert herself,
exemplified in characters like Kate Sheriff. Whereas Kate is more plain than beautiful, this
character is represented as fully capable of inner strength, as Kipling describes Kate in the
first chapter of the novel “A brown, sad-eyed little woman sat beside him, staring quietly at
the moon. She was tanned with tan of the girl who does not mind wind and rain and sun”
(Kipling, ch. 1)
Due to the expansion of education as well as the contribution of the printing press, the
nineteenth century became the “great age of the English novel, this was partly because the
novel was the vehicle best equipped to present a picture of life lived in a given society against
a stable background of social and moral values by people who were recognizably like the
people encountered by readers,” and this is the kind of picture of life the middle class reader
wanted to read about (Anis 19). Literature is the mirror of society, and during the nineteenth
century, it took up the Woman Question immediately.
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Kate Sheriff as a Victorian woman:
Kate Sheriff, a central character in The Naulahka, emerges as a compelling
embodiment of Victorian womanhood within the complex colonial landscape of the novel.
Born into an American household, Kate’s background situates her within the privileged upper
echelons of society as her father was a Civil Engineer. Her upbringing is characterized by the
prevailing societal ideals of the era, as “… she had often stayed long enough at the end of a
section with her family to see the first glimmering streaks of raw dawn of civilization”
(Kipling ch.1) where emphasis was placed on the domestic sphere and moral virtue.
Kate’s personality reflects strength, determination, and a subtle defiance of traditional
gender norms.
… she liked Nick Tarvin but she had a duty elsewhere. This duty, as she conceived it,
was, briefly, to spend her life in the East in the effort to better the condition of the
women in India. It had come to her as an inspiration and a command two years before,
toward the end of her second year at the St. Louis school, where she went to tie up the
loose ends of education she had given herself in lonely camps. (Kipling ch.1)
Her circumstances, particularly as a young woman in colonial India, allow her to navigate the
era’s challenges while embodying the qualities expected of a Victorian woman. Her
engagement with the colonial society introduces tensions between her personal and societal
expectations.
As a member of the privileged class, Kate has received education and exhibits
intelligence, curiosity, and a keen awareness of her surroundings. However, her education is
tempered by the constraints imposed on women’s aspirations during the Victorian era. The
limitations that Nick reminds her about the family against her aspiration, when, she decides to
go to India to serve, he says, “you’ve got a father and a mother, haven’t you? You can’t say
it’s the square thing to give them up. And you’ve got a man sitting beside you on this bridge
who loves you for all he’s worth.” (Kipling ch. 1)
Kate Sheriff and Nick Tarvin are emblematic figures, each possessing solid wills that
intersect and clash within the intricate. Kate’s character embodies the Victorian womanhood
ideals of the era, while Nick’s determination reflects a more unconventional and ambitious
pursuit. These conflicting wills provide a captivating exploration of individual desires within
the context of a society moulded by both colonialism and Victorian values.
Kate Sheriff, with her upbringing and education, epitomizes the essence of Victorian
womanhood. As an upper-class woman, she is anticipated to embody the virtues of
domesticity, modesty, and moral rectitude. However, Kate defies these expectations with her
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aspiration to serve in India, subverting the traditional role of women as homemakers. Her
desire to be of service and contribute to colonial society contrasts with the limited
opportunities afforded to women, revealing her determination to shape her destiny beyond
societal norms.
On the other hand, Nick’s will is driven by a vision of progress and modernization, as
evidenced by his ambition to introduce railroads to Topaz. His character embodies an
entrepreneurial spirit that challenges the limitations placed on him by his social status and
class. His insistence on realizing his railroad project in the face of obstacles mirrors Kate’s
determination to fulfil her aspirations.
…She had her own will. They sat on the bridge beating out their difference until they
heard the kitchen clock in a cabin on the other side of the ditch strike eleven…he
knew she meant that she must go to India, and his own will crumpled helplessly for
the moment within hers. He asked himself whether this was the will by which he
earned his living, the will which at twenty-eight had made him a successful man by
Topaz standards, which was taking him to the State Legislature… (Kipling ch. 1)
The dynamic between Kate and Nick takes a complex turn as their will intersect. Nick’s
encouragement for Kate to relinquish her desire to serve in India stems from his own
perspective on women’s roles and a desire to see her support his endeavours. Conversely,
Kate’s insistence on pursuing her calling challenges Nick’s perception of gender roles,
highlighting the tension between their ambitions and societal expectations.
The clash between Kate and Nick’s wills encapsulates the broader theme of personal
agency within the confines of a colonial and Victorian context. Their interactions reflect the
intricate interplay of gender, power, and ambition within a society grappling with change. As
their characters navigate their paths, the tension between their respective wills adds depth to
the narrative. It underscores the complexities of identity, autonomy, and the pursuit of
aspirations within the boundaries of tradition and progress.
Kate and Nick emerge as two distinct perspectives on marriage, reflecting the intricate
interplay between personal ambitions and societal expectations. Her unwavering
determination to pursue her ambitions clashes with Nick’s insistence on his own vision,
leading to a nuanced exploration of marriage as a dynamic influenced by individual
aspirations and the complexities of the era. She embodies a resolute commitment to her
aspirations, challenging the conventional notion of marriage as a primary life goal for
Victorian women.
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… Marriage is that way. It is right. Marriage means that – to be absorbed into
another’s life: to live your own, not as your own but another’s. It is a good life. It’s a
woman’s life. I can like it; I can believe in it. But I can’t see myself in it. A woman
gives the whole of herself in marriage – in all happy marriages. I haven’t the whole of
myself to give. It belongs to something else. And I couldn’t offer you a part it is all
the best men give to women, but from a woman it would do no man any good”
(Kipling ch. 18)
Her strong-willed nature and desire to serve in India define her identity, highlighting
her resolve to define herself beyond the confines of marriage. “‘I don’t say that; but suppose I
did, would it be so strange? Be honest, Nick, suppose I asked you to give up the centre and
meaning of your life? Suppose I asked you to give up your work? And suppose I offered in
exchange – marriage! No, no!’ She shook her head. ‘Marriage is good; but what man would
pay that price for it?’” (Kipling ch. 18) Her ambition takes precedence, leading her to resist
the traditional path that society expects her to follow. This defiance is emblematic of her
determination to shape her destiny based on her convictions, irrespective of societal norms.
In contrast, Nick Tarvin’s perspective on marriage is profoundly shaped by his
achievements and aspirations. With the attainment of the ‘naulahka’ gem, a symbol of his
material achievement, Nick’s ambitions seem to converge on a personal level. “I am grateful,
Nick, it’s a gift – the highest, the best, and I’m grateful. But what is it you really want? Shall
you mind my asking that, Nick? You want me to round out your life, you want me to
complete your other ambitions. Isn’t that so? Tell me honestly, Nick; isn’t that so?” (Kipling
ch. 18) He sees Kate as an integral part of this newfound success, which prompts him to insist
that she give up her own ambitions and accompany him to Topaz. Nick’s view of marriage is
intrinsically tied to his vision of a shared life that aligns with his achievements and
aspirations.
The tension between Kate and Nick’s differing views on marriage underscores the
complex dynamics between personal goals and relationships. Kate’s steadfast determination
represents a broader shift in societal expectations, reflecting changing perspectives on
women’s roles during the Victorian era. Nick’s insistence on a more traditional path
demonstrates the struggle to reconcile personal desires with the societal norms of the time,
particularly in the context of a changing world shaped by colonial influence.
Their interactions highlight the intricate interplay of personal agency and external
pressures within marriage. As Nick’s ambition is fulfilled with the acquisition of the gem, his
desire for Kate can be interpreted as a culmination of his personal conquests. This dynamic
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mirrors the multifaceted nature of marriage within the context of personal aspirations and the
broader societal landscape.
Conclusion
In Kipling’s The Naulahka, a tapestry of perspectives and complexities unfolds,
shedding light on the Victorian era’s intricate web of societal norms and personal aspirations.
Kipling’s nuanced view of women is subtly woven throughout the narrative, offering a
glimpse into the evolving roles of women during that era. Kate Sheriff, a quintessential
embodiment of Victorian womanhood, is a remarkable character within this multifaceted
tapestry. Her resilience, determination, and defiance of conventional norms exemplify the
essence of a Victorian woman navigating a colonial landscape.
Nick’s emphasis on family adds another layer to the narrative, intertwining his
ambitions with his yearning for a shared life. The conflict between Kate and Nick’s wills
further underscores the clash between individual aspirations and societal expectations,
mirroring the broader struggle of women like Kate, who sought to redefine their roles. Kate’s
perspective on marriage stands as a pivotal aspect of her character. Her steadfast commitment
to her ambitions and resistance to the conventional path underscores her agency, illustrating
her determination to shape her destiny on her terms. In this regard, Kate Sheriff emerges as
an emblematic example of a Victorian woman who defied the normative constraints of her
time.
Works Cited:
Primary Source:
Kipling, Rudyard. “Naulahka” Rudyard Kipling The Complete Works. Kindle ed., Delphi
Classics, 2011.
Secondary Source:
Anis, Rehnuma Bint. “The Woman Question in the novels by the Bronte Sisters.” IIUC
Studies, vol. 3, 2006, pp. 19-28. ResearchGate, doi: 10.3329/iiucs.v3i0.2629.
Kipling, Rudyard. “The Female of the Species” The Kipling Society, 2011,
www.kiplingsociety.co.uk/poem/poems_female.htm. Accessed 24 August 2023.
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Kipling, Rudyard. The White Man’s Burden: A Poem. Doubleday and McClure 1899.
Lawrence, D. H. “Do Women Change? Being the Opinions of a Famous English Novelist on
the Mutations of Feminity” Vanity Fair, vol. 32, no. 4, 1929, p.69. Vanity Fair, web:
www.archive.vanityfair.com/article/1929/4/do-women-change.
Lundén Rolf and Michael Srigley. Ideas and Identities : British and American Culture 1500-
1945. Studentlitteratur, 2009.
Nandy, Ashis. The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism. Oxford
University Press, 2009.
Walls, Elizabeth MacLeod. “‘A Little Afraid of the Women of Today’: The Victorian New
Woman and the Rhetoric of British Modernism.” Rhetoric Review, vol. 21, no. 3,
2002, pp. 229–46. JSTOR, web: www.jstor.org/stable/3093009.
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Dr Manoj Kanth