Theories of Acquisition of English as a Second Language https://doi.org /10.5281/zen od o.14980078

Theories of Acquisition of English as a Second Language
https://doi.org /10.5281/zen od o.14980078

Author(s): Khushbu Agrawal & Dr. Vinod H. Asudani

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14980078

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The Criterion: An International Journal in English Vol. 16, Issue-I, February 2025 ISSN: 0976-8165
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https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10448030
Theories of Acquisition of English as a Second Language
Khushbu Agrawal
Research Scholar,
PGTD, Rashtrasant Tukdoji Maharaj Nagpur University. Nagpur.
Assistant Professor,
Dr. Ambedkar Institute of Management Studies & Research, Nagpur.
&
Dr. Vinod H. Asudani
Associate Professor,
School of Humanities & Basic Sciences,
Ramdeobaba University, Nagpur.
Article History: Submitted‐19/12/2024, Revised‐03/01/2025, Accepted‐25/01/2025, Published‐28/02/2025.
Abstract:
English is acquired as second language by Indian students. The process of learning
English as a second language is essentially differently from that of the acquisition of first
language. A lot of research has gone to understand the methods that can prove effective for
the acquisition of English as second language. The present research article critically looks at
various theories put forth by the scholars that explain at length the process of acquisition of
English as second language. Depending upon level of learning for instance, primary level,
secondary level or university level, different theories can prove effective. Some of the
important theories discussed in this article include The Acculturation Model,
Accommodation Theory and so on.
Keywords: Accommodation, Acquisition Process, English as second language, Technical
Education, The Acculturation Model.
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Theories of Acquisition of English as a Second Language
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INTRODUCTION
General Theories on Second Language Acquisition. According to Ellis (1985), second
language acquisition is a complex process, involving many interrelated factors. The term
‘Second language acquisition’ (SLA) refers to the subconscious or conscious processes by
which a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural setting. It covers the
development of phonology, lexis, grammar, and pragmatic knowledge, but has been largely
confined to morph syntax. According to research in this field, it is thought that acquisition
can take place only when people understand messages in the target language, focusing on
what rather than how it is said. There are affective prerequisites to acquisition such as a
positive orientation to speakers of the language, and at least some degree of self-confidence,
as well as a silent period before any real spoken fluency develops. The amount of skills and
knowledge, called competence, will be acquired through input, and certainly the initial
production will not be very accurate. The study of SLA is directed at accounting for the
learner’s competence but in order to do so has set out to investigate empirically how a learner
performs when he or she uses a second language.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
1. Ingrid Fandrych has conducted a study to find out whether the modern word processor
helps the student to overcome difficulties of spelling and grammar. Modern word processors
do not only include spell checks and dictionaries but also grammar checks. Do these facilities
help second language students to compose correct sentences and texts? Will they even make
the grammar component that has traditionally been part of Academic Writing courses
redundant? This paper sets out to determine the usefulness of modern word processors in
terms of their grammar and spelling assistance and discuss the consequences for second
language learning and teaching. For this purpose, the most common word processors on the
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market at present (Word, WordPerfect) will be tested on a variety of texts ranging from
students’ essays to newspaper articles and literary and academic texts. It becomes clear from
the above analyses that word processors cannot yet solve all the problems many users face
when composing texts, especially if English is not their first language. It would certainly be
premature to reduce the grammar component of Academic Writing courses and to rely
instead on the grammar and spell checks of modern software.
2. Mark D. Offner has carried out any interesting study to find out whether standard English
can be developed for native and non-native speakers. Throughout the years there has been
much controversy concerning the question of whether a standard English actually does exist
and, if so, how should it be defined? A study of the wide variety of materials published on
this issue reveals that the opinions and conclusions are as varied and far-reaching as the topic
itself. From this it could be concluded that a standard English does not exist simply because
no consensus can be reached on this subject and because, in reality, there are a wide variety
of English dialects presently in use. It might be asked whether it would be beneficial or even
desirable to label and define some form as standard and attempt to spread this “superior”
form to all non-native (as well as native) speakers as the only officially accepted form of
English. In dealing with these questions this paper suggests that any attempt to define a
standard English is essentially futile and that the form English will take is naturally
determined by usage and communicability – factors which are beyond control.
3. Kristen Gatehouse (9) conducted a study on key Issues in English for Specific Purposes
(ESP) Curriculum Development. Based on insights gained from developing the curriculum
for Language Preparation for Employment in the Health Sciences and a review of the
literature on ESP, this paper is intended to offer theoretical support for ESL instructors
developing ESP curricula for ESL contexts.
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4. Norris and Ortega in Effectiveness of L2 Instruction: A Research Synthesis and
Quantitative Meta- Analysis have found that instruction definitely has a positive effect.
Instructional treatments involving an explicit focus on the rule- governed nature of L2
structure is more effective than treatments that do not include such a focus. The effects are
also durable. In other words, what the students have learned explicitly is remembered
overtime.
5. Swain in her article, focus on form through Conscious Reflection, showed that learners
can be made to notice the imperfections or‘ holes ’by use of explicit trule presentation,
followed by activities that require that the learners use output. During the process of output,
the learners in effect reflect on their own inadequacies, or notice the holes and they consult
their explicit to implicit knowledge to fill in those holes.

6. Foster and Skehan (1996) in Studies in Second Language Acquisition also stress the
importance of planned output tasks. In tasks for which planning time is permitted, learners
increase their accuracy and complexity.
AIM
This study aims at discussing some important theories of acquisition of English as a second
language.
Six theories of Second Language Acquisition.
The Acculturation Model-The term “acculturation” is defined as ‘the process of becoming
adapted to a new culture’ (Ellis1985). This is an important aspect of Second Language
Acquisition since language is one of the most observable expressions of culture and because
in second language settings, the acquisition of anew language is seen as tied to the way in
which the learner’s community and the target language community view each other. A central
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premise on this model is that a learner will control the degree to which he acquires the second
language.
Accommodation Theory- This theory derives from the research of Giles and focuses on the
uses of language in multilingual communities like Britain. It operates within a socio-
psychological framework and its primary concern is to investigate how an intergroup use of
language reflects basic social and psychological attitudes in inter-ehnic communication.
Discourse Theory -This theory is proposed by Halliday (1975) and his view of first language
acquisition. It derives from Hymes’s description of communicative competence in which
communication is treated as the matrix of linguistic knowledge. Hence, language
development should be considered in terms of how the learner discovers the meaning
potential of language by participating in communication. Halliday shows in a study how his
own child acquired language and puts forward that the development of the formal linguistic
devices for basic language grows out of the interpersonal uses to which language is put. One
of its main principles is that there is a ‘natural’ route in syntactical development.
The Monitor Model -Krashen’s Monitor Model is one of the most prominent and
comprehensive of existing theories in second language acquisition. It is an account on
language-learner variability within the framework of the Monitor Model. It consists of five
central hypotheses, and related to them, a number of factors which influence second language
acquisition. The five hypotheses are first, the acquisition-learning hypothesis where the
terms ‘acquired’ and ‘learnt’ are defined as subconscious and conscious study of language;
secondly, the natural hypothesis which affirms that grammatical structures are ‘acquired’ in a
predictable order; thirdly the monitor hypothesis, where the monitor is the device that
learners use to edit their language performance; fourth, the input hypothesis by which
‘acquisition’ takes place as a result of the learner having understood input a little beyond the
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current level of his competence; and finally, the affective filter hypothesis, where the filter
controls how much input the learner comes into contact with, and how much is converted into
intake.
The Variable Competence Model- This model is proposed by Ellis (1984) and extends on
the work of Tirone and Bialystok. It claims that the way a language is learnt is a reflection of
the way it is used. Therefore, two distinctions form the basis for this model; one refers to the
process of language use, and the other to the product. The product of language use deals with
unplanned and planned discourse. Unplanned discourse is related to the lack of preparation or
forethought, and also to spontaneous communication. On the other hand, planned discourse
requires conscious thought and gives priority to expression rather than thought. The process
of language use is to be understood in terms of rules and procedures, that is, linguistic
knowledge and the ability to make use of this knowledge. (Ellis 1985)
The Universal Hypothesis – In the words of Ellis (1985), this hypothesis states that second
language acquisition is determined by certain linguistic universals. Those working on this
tradition argue that there is a Universal Grammar that constrains the kind of hypotheses that
the learner can form and that it is innate. The relationship between Universal Grammar and
acquisition of the first language is, in fact, a necessary one, as Chomsky’s primary
justification for Universal Grammar is that it provides the only way of accounting for how
children are able to learn their mother tongue.
The Natural Approach and Language Acquisition- In 1977, a teacher of Spanish, Tracy
Terrell, and an applied linguist, Stephen Krashen, both from California, developed a language
teaching proposal that incorporated the statements of the principles and practices of second
language acquisition. In their book, The Natural Approach (1983), we find theoretical
sections prepared by Krashen and sections on classroom procedures, prepared by Terrell.
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Their method focuses on teaching communicative abilities and the primacy of meaning,
following a communicative approach, since they see communication as the primary function
of language, they rejected earlier methods of language teaching which viewed grammar as the
central component. Krashen and Terrell’s view of language consists of lexical items,
structures, and messages. This method has been identified with “traditional” approaches
based on the use of language in communicative situations without recourse to the native
language. The term “natural” refers to the principles of language learning in young children
in the Natural Method, and similarly in Krashen and Terrell’s principles found in successful
second language acquisition. However, the fact that the Natural Approach was related to the
older Natural Method does not mean that they are synonymous terms. In fact, the Natural
Method became known as the Direct Method by the turn of the twentieth century. Although
they share the same tradition and the same term “natural”, there are important differences
between them. Thus, the Direct Method places emphasis on teacher monologues, direct
repetition, and formal questions and answers, focusing on accurate production of target
language sentences. In the Natural Approach there is an emphasis on exposure, or input,
rather than practice, that is, what the language learners hear before they try to produce
language. Moreover, there is an emphasis on the central role of comprehension (Richards &
Rodgers (1992). The theory of the Natural Approach is grounded in Krashen’s views of
language acquisition, which is based on scientific studies (Krashen and Terrell 1983).
Therefore, it is relevant to present first, the fourth principles on which this theory is based on,
and then, the five hypotheses that account for this method. The first principle is that
comprehension precedes production. The second general principal accounts for production to
emerge in stages, where students are not forced to speak before they are ready. The third
general principle is that the course syllabus consists of communicative goals, organizing
classroom activities by topics, not grammatical structures. The final principle is that activities
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must foster a lowering of the affective filter of the students, encouraging them to express their
ideas, opinions, emotions and feeling. A good atmosphere must be created by the instructor.
The Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis- The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most
fundamental of all the hypotheses in Krashen’s theory and the most widely known among
linguists and language practitioners. The Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis claims that there
are two independent systems of second language performance: the acquired system and the
learned system. Acquisition refers to a natural and subconscious process very similar to the
process children undergo when they acquire their first language in order to develop a
language proficiency. Speakers are, then, concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but
in the communicative act through a meaningful interaction in the target language or natural
communication. According to Krashen (1983), learning refers to a process of conscious rules
for meaningful communication which results in conscious knowledge about the language.
According to Krashen, ‘learning’ is less important than ‘acquisition’.
The Monitor Hypothesis- The Monitor Hypothesis emphasizes the role of grammar, as the
learned knowledge to correct ourselves when we communicate, but through conscious
learning, in both first and in second languages. This may happen before we actually speak or
write. However, the Monitor use itself is limited to three specific requirements. Thus, the
performer first, has to have enough time to think about rules; secondly, the learner has to
focus on form, on what rather than how; and finally, the learner has to know the rule.
According to Krashen (1983), the role of the monitor should be used only to correct
deviations from speech and to polish its appearance. Hence, it appears that the role of
conscious learning is somewhat limited in second language performance. According to
Krashen, the role of the monitor is – or should be – minor, being used only to correct
deviations from ‘normal’ speech and to give speech a more ‘polished’ appearance. Krashen,
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then, establishes an individual variation analysis among language learners regarding their
monitor use.
The Natural Order Hypothesis- According to the Natural Order Hypothesis, the acquisition
of grammatical structures take place in a predictable order in which errors are signs of
naturalistic developmental processes. This order seems to be independent of the learners’ age,
first language background, conditions of exposure, and although the agreement between
individual acquirers was not statistically similar. All these features reinforced the existence of
a natural order of language acquisition. In general, certain structures tend to be acquired early
such as grammatical morphemes, or “function words” and others to be acquired late such as
the third person singular morpheme or the possessive marker. However, Krashen (1983)
points out that this hypothesis is not a language program syllabus, and in fact, he rejects
grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition.
The Input Hypothesis. – The Input Hypothesis is Krashen’s explanation of how second
language acquisition takes place, and is only concerned with acquisition, not learning. This
hypothesis points out the relationship between the learner’s input and the language
acquisition process, where the speaking fluency emerges after the acquirer has built up
competence through comprehending input. This hypothesis claims that listening
comprehension and reading are of primary importance in a language program, and that
speaking fluently in a second language comes on its own with time. According to this
hypothesis, learners improve and progress along the natural order when receiving second
language input. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence
at the same time, Krashen (1983) suggests that natural communicative input is the key to
design a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive the appropriate input for
their current stage of linguistic competence.
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The Affective Filter Hypothesis- In the Affective Filter Hypothesis, Krashen (1983) gives a
framework to the learner’s emotional state or attitudes that may pass, impede, or block the
necessary input to acquisition. These affective variables are usually related to success in
second language acquisition and they contribute to the concept of “low affective filter”.
Among the positive variables, we may include motivation, a good self-image, and a low level
of anxiety. It means that the performer is open to input, and that having the right attitudes,
such as confidence and encouragement, second language acquisition will be a complete
success. On the contrary, low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can
combine to raise the affective filter and form a mental block that prevents comprehensible
input from being use for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is up, it impedes
language acquisition.
Factors which influence second language acquisition- ‘The five-hypothesis seen
mentioned above form the core of the second language acquisition theory that underlies
Natural Approach. We will consider now the implication of the theory to several issues such
as second language “aptitude”, the role of the first language, the role of routines and patterns,
individual variation, and age differences in second language rate and attainment (Krashen &
Terrell 1983).
Second Language Aptitude-Supported by empirical studies, the idea of second language
aptitude is related to rapid progress in second language classes, and for those students that
have this aptitude, a better performance in foreign language classes. The speed of learning is
measured by grammar-type tests that involve a conscious awareness of language, where the
ability to consciously “figure out” grammar rules will lead students to success. Aptitude
differences play a large role if grammatical accuracy is emphasized.

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The Role of the First Language-The role of the first language in second language
performance is closely related to the term interference, which can recast as a learner
‘strategy’ (Corder 1981). This concept implies that second language acquisition (SLA) is
strongly influenced by the learner’s first language (L1) when we try to speak a second
language (L2). It was claimed that there is a “fall back” on first language grammatical
competence when students have to produce in second language. It should not be thought,
according to Krashen (1983) that any approach will completely eliminate this mode of
production. When students try to express themselves in the target language beyond their
acquired ability, they will tend to fall back on the L1. During the last decades, there has been
considerable disagreement among researchers about the extent of the role of L1 due to
behaviourist which see SLA as a process of habit-formation. Hence, according to this theory,
errors were the result of interference from the habits of the L1. The Contrastive Analysis
Hypothesis was an attempt to predict the areas of difficulty that learners experienced, and
eliminate the chance of error but it did not prove to be successful. As the learner’s
proficiency grows, L1 influence will become less powerful.
Routines and Patterns- Routines and patterns are sentences spoken by performers who have
not acquired or learned the rules involved, thus ‘What’s your name?’ They may be helpful for
encouraging input in the real world, as well as to manage conversations. Patterns are partially
memorized and may be of considerable indirect benefit. Correctly used, routines and patterns
can help acquirers gain more input and manage conversations, and on the contrary, they can
lead to trouble if not used effectively as they cannot be used for every situation.
Individual Variation. -The theory of second language acquisition possesses a basic
uniformity in the way we all acquire language. It also predicts that acquirers will vary only in
certain ways, thus in the rate and extent of acquisition. This is due to two factors: the amount
of comprehensible input an acquirer obtains, and the strength of the affective filter. We can
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also observe variation with respect to routines and patterns use with respect to classroom
activities. Students who have no aptitude for grammar or who simply are not interested in
grammar, will concentrate almost completely on acquisition activities.
Age Differences: Age is the variable that has been most discussed when dealing with second
language acquisition because of the belief that children are better language learners than
adults. There has been considerable research on the effect of age on this field. The available
evidence suggests that age does not alter the route of acquisition, and according to Ellis
(1985), child, adolescent, and adult learners go through the same stages irrespective of how
old they are. However, rate and success of SLA appear to be strongly influenced by the age
of the learner. Where rate is concerned, it is the older learners who reach higher levels of
proficiency. Literature research shows that although age improves language learning
capacity, performance may peak in the teens, and that age was a factor only when it came to
morphology and syntax. Where success of SLA is concerned, the general finding is that the
longer the exposure to the L2, the more native-like L2 proficiency becomes.
The Concept of Interlanguage -In this section we will relate the concept of interlanguage
to its background in cognitive views on language acquisition and the sequence of
development in second language acquisition. Closely related to interlanguage is the nature of
errors. The term interlanguage was first coined by Selinker (1972) and refers to the
systematic knowledge of a second language which is independent of both the learner’s first
language and the target language. The term is related to a theory of learning that stresses the
learner-internal factors which contribute to language acquisition, and it was the first attempt
to examine empirically how a learner builds up knowledge of a language. Interlanguage was
a construct which identifies the stages of development through which L2 learners pass on
their way to proficiency. The question was to what extent the order of development paralleled
that in L1 acquisition. Cognitive accounts of first language acquisition (FLA) stressed the
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active contribution of the child and minimized the importance of behaviourist concepts, such
as interference, imitation and reinforcement. One of the most prominent figures in this field,
Noam Chomsky, claimed that the child’s knowledge of his mother tongue was derived from a
Universal Grammar which consisted of a set of innate linguistic principles to control
sentences formation. Another cognitive feature that needs mentioning is that the child builds
up his knowledge of his mother tongue by means of hypothesis-testing. Corder (1981)
suggests that both L1 and L2 learners make errors in order to test out certain hypotheses
about the nature of the language they are learning. He saw the making of errors as a strategy.
This view was in opposition to the view of the SLA presented in the Contrastive Analysis
Hypothesis where L2 errors are the result of differences between the learner’s first language
and the target language.
CONCLUSION
Though the process of language acquisitions defines all the attempts to understand it in a
clear manner, scholars hold the opinion that different theoretical approaches are required to
teach English to the students who learn it as a second language. The above theories have
critically discussed various roots through which the non native learners acquire English as a
second language. The knowledge of these theories would surely prove to be of immense
value to the teachers of English as a second language. It is to be noted that everything cannot
be explained with a reference to theories, much depends on the innovative methods adopted
by the teachers and interest and zeal of the learners when it comes to the question of
acquisition of language.

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